Silver

Before Boehm, the use of metals in flute tubes was rare though did exist. Theobald Boehm first began making metal flutes in 1847, and, from that time onwards, the most common metals used for quality flutes were silver and so-called German or nickel silver.

The silver standard defined by a government varies from country to country as below. The minimum silver content was defined to prevent adulteration of precious metals upon which a country’s currency may be determined. The addition of copper to fine silver was carried out to colour it for cosmetic reasons.

Silver standards: The figures represent parts in a thousand.
.800–860 in Germany, though the minimum content after 1864 was.800.
.830 A common standard used in older Scandinavian silver.
.900 American Coin Silver, known in the USA as One Nine Fine
.925 Sterling silver as set by the British Assay Office and used worldwide.
.950 Used in France and known as French First Standard
.958 Britannia Silver also used worldwide.
.980 The common standard used in Mexico c.1930–1945
.999 ‘Pure’ or fine silver used in bullion bars also known in the USA as three nines fine

Before c.1900, flute tubes were made from sheet silver and seamed; this was done by rolling a sheet of silver under pressure through a pair of rollers (like an old-fashioned mangle) which bent the sheet into a tubular shape after which it was soldered. Practices varied from country to country but after c1900, tubes were made seamlessly. The tube ‘hardness’ is determined by the roller pressure in a seamed tube, or by the drawing process undergone by seamless tubes. It is claimed to affect the tone.

Though largely seamless today, some rare exceptions such as Altus (special model) and earlier flutes of Stephen Wessel are seamed. The flutes of each country broadly followed the defined silver standard for that country though mention should be made that flutes by the US makers, Verne Q Powell, were made of.925 and W S Haynes of.900 Piccolos and alto flutes.

Silver examples of alto flutes were made by Boehm, Rudall Carte and others. The earliest metal piccolo recorded was by W.S Haynes before 1900 and numbered 0080 and pitched in Db Nickel or German silver

The name given to various alloys of copper, zinc, and nickel, sometimes also containing lead and tin. The metals were originally named for their silver-white color, similar in appearance to silver, though the use of the term ‘silver’ is now prohibited for alloys not containing this metal. Modern German silver varies in composition, the percentage of the three elements ranging approximately as follows: copper, from 50% to 61.6%; zinc, from 17.2% to 19%; and nickel, from 21% to 30%. This metal is extensively used due to its hardness, toughness, and resistance to corrosion for articles such as tableware (commonly silver plated), marine fittings, and plumbing fixtures. Because of its high electrical resistance it is used also in heating coils.

It was formulated in 1823 by a German industrial chemist, E. A. Geitner and independently also by the brothers, Henniger in Berlin, Germany, where it was known as German silver and also by two Lyons silversmiths, Mallet and Chorier (1827) who gave their name to the French version, Maillechort. A form of German silver was also invented in Birmingham, England in 1832.

It might be assumed that cheaper metal was used only in inexpensive flutes, though the type of nickel silver used by Lebret, Lot, Bonneville and others are much sought after for their tonal qualities.

Up to c.1900, nickel or German silver was commonly of c.6.5% nickel; after this time it was increased to c.19% and although this added to its corrosion resistance, for the flute player it was regarded as less satisfactory. Most, but not all, 19th century nickel silver flutes were silver plated, as is common today.

Nickel silver was actually first known in China and became known in the west from imported wares called ‘paktong’ where the silvery metal colour was used to imitate sterling silver. It was discovered to be a copper-nickel-zinc alloy in the 18th century. In 1770 the Suhl (Germany) Metalworks were able to produce a similar alloy and in 1823 a competition was initiated to perfect the production process by creating an alloy that possessed the closest visual similarity to silver. As above, the brothers Henniger and A. Geitner independently achieved this goal. Alpacca became a widely known name in northern Europe for nickel silver after it was used as a trademark brand by the manufacturer Berndorf.

Gold

Very rare in 19th century; one Louis Lot was made for Remusat, and subsequently owned by Jean-Pierre Rampal. A Rittershausen flute said to have been made for the Tsar of Russia was subsequently presented to Emil Prill. Others were made by Rudall Carte &Co of London.

The gold content of an object is measured in carats, or parts out of 24, the latter being pure gold. Like silver, each country sets its gold standard though commonly it was 9, 14, 18, 22 carat with pure gold at 24 carats. Thus 14 carat gold is 58% gold, and the rest is copper and silver. Gold ore when mined is of various colours from rose to white. To maintain the whiteness of white gold, silver is mixed with it; to make ‘rose gold’ ‘rosier’, more copper than silver is added. ‘99 Gold’ is a special alloy of 99% gold and 1% titanium. The appearance of gold can be changed by the addition of more silver(white gold) or copper (red gold).

Other mixtures currently in use are 19.5 carat gold used by the US flute making companies, Burkhardt, Verne Q Powell and W.S. Haynes, and 5K gold flutes are made by the Japanese company, Sankyo.

Other metals used in flutes

Bronze was used by the Belfast maker, Jack Frazer in headjoints. Stainless steel alloy was used by Rudall Carte & Co from around 1935 and was called ‘The New Metal’ flute, the body and foot joint being in one piece. More recently, makers such as Albert Cooper experimented with stainless steel. Aluminium flutes were produced by the German company Uebel using a much thicker than normal tube.

Some flutes are now ‘bonded’: a thin layer of gold is bonded on to silver or other metal – the bonding is thicker than plating. 19th century ‘silver plate’ in household articles was made by this process, as opposed to ‘plating’. Some makers describe this process as ‘fused’ onto a tube.

PCM-Silver alloy; this contains 65% silver and other precious metals. PCM-Silver was developed from an idea to produce a material with a density greater than nickel silver and a hardness greater than sterling silver.

Miyazawa employs a gold-silver (GS) alloy and contains 10.5% gold and 89.5% silver and other semi-precious metals. Jonathan Landell produces a new alloy of silver called Argentium™ Sterling Silver, essentially a high-grade sterling alloy with a trace (c1%) of Germaniun added to the metal. Germanium is a rare metalloid.

Atomic weight of metals:
Brass 8.6
Gold 19.3
Nickel 8.8
Platinum 21.37
Silver 10.42–10.53
Titanium 4.5

Platinum and other metals

Platinum flutes are usually 90% platinum and 10% iridium and are made by most flute makers to special order. Other metals used are palladium and titanium. The search for the ideal metal continues... “I prefer a simple tube without a built-in tone... then I can put into it what I want” (Marcel Moyse)

This was prepared for the Flute Studio, a year long postgraduate course in Kent, England. Details: http://www.trevorwye.com/studio.page4.html

Trevor Wye spends his time giving concerts and master classes the world over including his well known presentation, The Carnival of Venice, for 60 flutes and piano. Besides travelling widely, he teaches at his Flute Studio in Kent and is Programme Director of the 2010 British Flute Society Convention and General Editor of The Flute Ark – the new flute encyclopedia:
www.fluteark.com
www.trevorwye.com